Below we provide a bibliography of research that builds the foundation of  “Biodiversity Islands.”

 

Economic Benefits

-Evaluating Economic Value

An overview of the total global value of ecosystem services….

Adamowicz, W., Calderon-Etter, L., Entem, A., Fenichel, E.P., Hall, J.S., Lloyd-Smith, P., Ogden, F.L., Regina, J.A., Rad, M.R. and Stallard, R.F., 2019. Assessing ecological infrastructure investments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, p.201802883.

Abstract: Conventional markets can underprovide ecosystem services. Deliberate creation of a market for ecosystem services [e.g., a payments for ecosystem services (PES) scheme] can close the gap. The new ecosystem service market alters behaviors and quantities of ecosystem service provided and reveals prices for the ecosystems service: a market-clearing equilibrium. Assessing the potential for PES programs, which often act as ecological infrastructure investment mechanisms, requires forecasting the market-clearing equilibrium. Forecasting the equilibrium is complicated, especially at relevant social and ecological scales. It requires greater disciplinary integration than valuing ecosystem services or computing the marginal cost of making a land-use change to produce a service. We conduct an ex ante benefit–cost assessment and forecast market-clearing prices and quantities for ecological infrastructure investment contracts in the Panama Canal Watershed. The Panama Canal Authority could offer contracts to private farmers to change land use to increase dry-season water flow and reduce sedimentation. A feasible voluntary contracting system yields a small program of about 1,840 ha of land conversion in a 279,000-ha watershed and generates a 4.9 benefit–cost ratio. Physical and social constraints limit market supply and scalability. Service delays, caused by lags between the time payments must be made and the time services stemming from ecosystem change are realized, hinder program feasibility. Targeting opportunities raise the benefit–cost ratio but reduce the hectares likely to be converted. We compare and contrast our results with prior state-of-the-art assessments on this system.

Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Sutton, P., van der Ploeg, S., Anderson, S.J., Kubiszewski, I., Farber, S. and Turner, R.K., 2014. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Global environmental change, 26, pp.152-158.

Abstract: In 1997, the global value of ecosystem services was estimated to average $33 trillion/yr in 1995 $US ($46 trillion/yr in 2007 $US). In this paper, we provide an updated estimate based on updated unit ecosystem service values and land use change estimates between 1997 and 2011. We also address some of the critiques of the 1997 paper. Using the same methods as in the 1997 paper but with updated data, the estimate for the total global ecosystem services in 2011 is $125 trillion/yr (assuming updated unit values and changes to biome areas) and $145 trillion/yr (assuming only unit values changed), both in 2007 $US. From this we estimated the loss of eco-services from 1997 to 2011 due to land use change at $4.3–20.2 trillion/yr, depending on which unit values are used. Global estimates expressed in monetary accounting units, such as this, are useful to highlight the magnitude of eco-services, but have no specific decision-making context. However, the underlying data and models can be applied at multiple scales to assess changes resulting from various scenarios and policies. We emphasize that valuation of eco-services (in whatever units) is not the same as commodification or privatization. Many eco-services are best considered public goods or common pool resources, so conventional markets are often not the best institutional frameworks to manage them. However, these services must be (and are being) valued, and we need new, common asset institutions to better take these values into account.

 

An updated global value of ecosystem services….

Costanza, R., de Groot, R., Braat, L., Kubiszewski, I., Fioramonti, L., Sutton, P., Farber, S. and Grasso, M., 2017. Twenty years of ecosystem services: How far have we come and how far do we still need to go?. Ecosystem Services, 28, pp.1-16.

Abstract: It has been 20 years since two seminal publications about ecosystem services came out: an edited book by Gretchen Daily and an article in Nature by a group of ecologists and economists on the value of the world’s ecosystem services. Both of these have been very highly cited and kicked off an explosion of research, policy, and applications of the idea, including the establishment of this journal. This article traces the history leading up to these publications and the subsequent debates, research, institutions, policies, on-the-ground actions, and controversies they triggered. It also explores what we have learned during this period about the key issues: from definitions to classification to valuation, from integrated modelling to public participation and communication, and the evolution of institutions and governance innovation. Finally, it provides recommendations for the future. In particular, it points to the weakness of the mainstream economic approaches to valuation, growth, and development. It concludes that the substantial contributions of ecosystem services to the sustainable wellbeing of humans and the rest of nature should be at the core of the fundamental change needed in economic theory and practice if we are to achieve a societal transformation to a sustainable and desirable future.

Private Sector Investment in Biodiversity Conservation

Credit Suisse, World Wildlife Fund, and McKinsey & Company. 2014. Conservation finance: Moving beyond donor funding toward an investor-driven approach. Retrieved 1 November, 2018, from https://www.cbd.int/financial/privatesector/g-private-wwf.pdf

Valuable ecosystems are today undergoing rapid degradation and depletion in many parts of the world. Natural capital and the services that ecosystems provide are still poorly understood and rarely monitored. Unlike in the case of traditional commodities, the value of these natural resources is not recognized by today’s markets. It is, however, crucial that we understand the interrelationship between environmental quality and economic profitability. This information needs to be integrated into macroeconomic analysis and included in decision-making processes in the areas of financing and investment. To preserve the health of natural ecosystems, a significantly larger amount of capital investment is required than the sums currently being allocated to conservation. Private sector investment is needed, not to replace but to supplement traditional sources of conservation capital such as public funding or philanthropy, which have been impacted by the global economic downturn. Against this backdrop, WWF and Credit Suisse have joined forces in the area of conservation finance to identify the conditions needed to attract and redirect private capital toward conservation.

This report shows that there are many unexploited private sector investment opportunities to increase conservation finance and deliver maximum conservation impacts while, at the same time, generating returns for investors. In order to develop appropriate financing structures and ensure that private sector conservation finance results in measurable conservation outcomes, financial institutions and non-governmental organizations must experiment and define their respective roles and approaches. If both sides concentrate on their main areas of expertise – with banks focusing on the alignment of capital resources, risks, and maturities, while NGOs identify measures to protect the natural environment – we can create a new opportunity for collaboration that will help to preserve natural capital for future generations. Provided it delivers measurable results, investor-driven conservation finance can create powerful incentives for truly sustainable development.

 

Analyzing valuation of ecosystem services through various spacial scales and how these scales interact among various stakeholders….

Hein, Lars & Van Koppen, Christianus & Groot, Rudolf & van Ierland, Ekko. (2006). Spatial Scales, Stakeholders and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services. Ecological Economics. 57. 209-228. 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.04.005.

Abstract: Since the late 1960s, the valuation of ecosystem services has received ample attention in scientific literature. However, to date, there has been relatively little elaboration of the various spatial and temporal scales at which ecosystem services are supplied. This paper analyzes the spatial scales of ecosystem services, and it examines how stakeholders at different spatial scales attach different values to ecosystem services. The paper first establishes an enhanced framework for the valuation of ecosystem services, with specific attention for stakeholders. The framework includes a procedure to assess the value of regulation services that avoids double counting of these services. Subsequently, the paper analyses the spatial scales of ecosystem services: the ecological scales at which ecosystem services are generated, and the institutional scales at which stakeholders benefit from ecosystem services. On the basis of the proposed valuation framework, we value four selected ecosystem services supplied by the De Wieden wetlands in The Netherlands, and we analyze how these services accrue to stakeholders at different institutional scales. These services are the provision of reed for cutting, the provision of fish, recreation, and nature conservation. In the De Wieden wetland, reed cutting and fisheries are only important at the municipal scale, recreation is most relevant at the municipal and provincial scale, and nature conservation is important in particular at the national and international level. Our analysis shows that stakeholders at different spatial scales can have very different interests in ecosystem services, and we argue that it is highly important to consider the scales of ecosystem services when valuation of services is applied to support the formulation or implementation of ecosystem management plans.

Status and trends in ecosystem services.

Salzman, J., G. Bennett, N. Carroll, A. Goldstein, and M. Jenkins. 2018. The global status and trends of Payments for Ecosystem Services. Nature Sustainability 1: 136–144.

Abstract: Recent decades have witnessed a considerable increase in Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES)—programmes that exchange value for land management practices intended to provide or ensure ecosystem services—with over 550 active programmes around the globe and an estimated US$36–42 billion in annual transactions. PES represent a recent policy instrument with often very different programmes operating at local, regional and national levels. Despite the growth of these programmes, comprehensive and reliable data have proven difficult to find. This Analysis provides an assessment of the trends and current status of PES mechanisms—user-financed, government-financed and compliance—across the domains of water, biodiversity, and forest and land-use carbon around the world. We report the various dimensions of growth over the past decade (number of programmes, geographical spread, dollar value) to understand better the range of PES mechanisms over time and to examine which factors have contributed to or hindered growth. Four key features stand out for scaling up PES: motivated buyers, motivated sellers, metrics and low-transaction-cost institutions. A unique dataset of over 550 programmes of Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) worldwide, grouped into water, forest- and land-use carbon, and biodiversity programmes, is used to assess the trends and the current status of such policy instruments.

 

Microeconomic considerations for ecosystem and biodiversity conservation through the value of ecosystem services….

Naidoo, Robin, and Taylor H. Ricketts. “Mapping the economic costs and benefits of conservation.” PLoS biology 4.11 (2006): e360.

Abstract: Resources for biodiversity conservation are severely limited, requiring strategic investment. Understanding both the economic benefits and costs of conserving ecosystems will help to allocate scarce dollars most efficiently. However, although cost-benefit analyses are common in many areas of policy, they are not typically used in conservation planning. We conducted a spatial evaluation of the costs and benefits of conservation for a landscape in the Atlantic forests of Paraguay. We considered five ecosystem services (i.e., sustainable bushmeat harvest, sustainable timber harvest, bioprospecting for pharmaceutical products, existence value, and carbon storage in aboveground biomass) and compared them to estimates of the opportunity costs of conservation. We found a high degree of spatial variability in both costs and benefits over this relatively small (~3,000 km²) landscape. Benefits exceeded costs in some areas, with carbon storage dominating the ecosystem service values and swamping opportunity costs. Other benefits associated with conservation were more modest and exceeded costs only in protected areas and indigenous reserves. We used this cost-benefit information to show that one potential corridor between two large forest patches had net benefits that were three times greater than two otherwise similar alternatives. Spatial cost-benefit analysis can powerfully inform conservation planning, even though the availability of relevant data may be limited, as was the case in our study area. It can help us understand the synergies between biodiversity conservation and economic development when the two are indeed aligned and to clearly understand the trade-offs when they are not.

 

Proper valuation of ecosystem and biological conservation through various lenses….

Pagiola, Stefano; von Ritter, Konrad; Bishop, Joshua. Assessing the Economic Value of Ecosystem Conservation. Environment Department Papers. Environmental Economics 2004. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/18391 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.”

Executive Summary:  “Valuation studies have considerably increased our knowledge of the value of ecosystems. Their usefulness has often been undermined, however, by failure to properly frame them so as to address the specific question of interest. Unfortunately, environmental advocates in the media, government, business, and civil society have often seized on impressive but sometimes unsound valuation results and used them indiscriminately, and often inappropriately. Valuation is not a single activity, and the seemingly simple question ‘how valuable is an ecosystem?’ can be interpreted in many different ways. It could be interpreted as asking about the value of the current flow of benefits provided by that ecosystem, for example, or about the value of future flows of benefits. It could also be asking about the value of conserving that ecosystem rather than converting it to some other use. These interpretations of the question are often treated as being synonymous, but they are in fact very different questions, and the answer to one will not be correct as an answer to the other. This paper seeks to clarify how valuation should be conducted to answer specific policy questions. In particular, it looks at how valuation should be used to examine four distinct aspects of the value of ecosystems.“

 

The overall economic value of environmental benefits that result from biodiversity. What can be lost vs. what can be gained through biodiversity conservation efforts…..

Pimentel, David, et al. “Economic and environmental benefits of biodiversity.” BioScience 47.11 (1997): 747-757.

Summary: This study explores the economic and environmental value of biodiversity.  The 1997 estimate of value from biodiversity is $300 Billion. The crucial connection between economic health and healthy biodiversity is described in detail through this pivotal article.

Beyond Economics

The ineptitude and and inadequacy of valuing biodiversity through economic valuations.

Maier, D.S., 2017. Should biodiversity and nature have to earn their keep? What it really means to bring environmental goods into the marketplace. Ambio, pp.1-16.

Abstract: Pursuit of economic gain has sponsored much of our planet’s despoliation. Yet conservation increasingly operates as an economic sector that markets biodiversity, ecosystems, and nature as natural capital, service provider, or option value. This essay first elucidates what basic moral theory says about the principle that the goodness of biodiversity and nature is largely economic. It explains why economic valuations may be morally unimportant, inapt for environmental goods, and subversive of more important ideals. It also shows why neither econometric notions of option value nor Daniel Faith’s qualitative one credibly applies. The essay then turns to what an economic conception of goodness implies for conservation practice. It refers to two prominent conservation organizations, whose conservation principles match the market-based ones of the World Business Council on Sustainable Development’s. The environmental record of the latter organization’s practices according to these principles predicts what their adoption for conservation entails.

Community Led Action

Community Based Conservation (CBC) the fusion of conservation and development for the benefit of the whole.

Berkes, Fikret. Rethinking Community Based Conservation Conservation biology 18.3 (2004): 621-630.

Abstract: Community-based conservation (CBC) is based on the idea that if conservation and development could be simultaneously achieved, then the interests of both could be served. It has been controversial because community development objectives are not necessarily consistent with conservation objectives in a given case. I examined CBC from two angles. First, CBC can be seen in the context of paradigm shifts in ecology and applied ecology. I identified three conceptual shifts—toward a systems view, toward the inclusion of humans in the ecosystem, and toward participatory approaches to ecosystem management—that are interrelated and pertain to an understanding of ecosystems as complex adaptive systems in which humans are an integral part. Second, I investigated the feasibility of CBC, as informed by a number of emerging interdisciplinary fields that have been pursuing various aspects of coupled systems of humans and nature. These fields  common property, traditional ecological knowledge, environmental ethics, political ecology, and environmental history provide insights for CBC. They may contribute to the development of an interdisciplinary conservation science with a more sophisticated understanding of social-ecological interactions. The lessons from these fields include the importance of cross-scale conservation, adaptive comanagement, the question of incentives and multiple stakeholders, the use of traditional ecological knowledge, and development of a cross-cultural conservation ethic.

 

“Church Forests” in Ethiopia provide a sanctuary for Biodiversity.

Abstract: Conventional markets can underprovide ecosystem services. Deliberate creation of a market for ecosystem services [e.g., a payments for ecosystem services (PES) scheme] can close the gap. The new ecosystem service market alters behaviors and quantities of ecosystem service provided and reveals prices for the ecosystems service: a market-clearing equilibrium. Assessing the potential for PES programs, which often act as ecological infrastructure investment mechanisms, requires forecasting the market-clearing equilibrium. Forecasting the equilibrium is complicated, especially at relevant social and ecological scales. It requires greater disciplinary integration than valuing ecosystem services or computing the marginal cost of making a land-use change to produce a service. We conduct an ex ante benefit–cost assessment and forecast market-clearing prices and quantities for ecological infrastructure investment contracts in the Panama Canal Watershed. The Panama Canal Authority could offer contracts to private farmers to change land use to increase dry-season water flow and reduce sedimentation. A feasible voluntary contracting system yields a small program of about 1,840 ha of land conversion in a 279,000-ha watershed and generates a 4.9 benefit–cost ratio. Physical and social constraints limit market supply and scalability. Service delays, caused by lags between the time payments must be made and the time services stemming from ecosystem change are realized, hinder program feasibility. Targeting opportunities raise the benefit–cost ratio but reduce the hectares likely to be converted. We compare and contrast our results with prior state-of-the-art assessments on this system.

 

Ceperley, N., Montagnini, F. and Natta, A., 2010. Significance of sacred sites for riparian forest conservation in Central Benin. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, 303(1), pp.5-23.

Biodiversity Conservation as a Tool of Rural Development

An novel approach to critical biodiversity conservation in Ecuadorian tropical forests that includes local populations in design an implementation.

Fernández, Sarah Haidée. “The Value of Small-Scale Projects in Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Rural Development in the Ecuadorian Chocó.” (2013).

Abstract: The humid forests of the Chocó biogeographic region are characterized by high biodiversity and species endemism, as well as rapid habitat loss. This is especially the case of the Chocó forests within Ecuador. Since the second half of the twentieth century, the Ecuadorian Chocó has been reduced to less than 4% of its original forest cover, particularly as a consequence of logging, the expansion of African oil palm plantations and changing forms of land tenure since the late 1960s. Following a request from an international conservation NGO, fieldwork for this dissertation began with the aim to determine the route for a viable ecological corridor between the two largest Chocó fragments remaining in the country, the ecological reserves of Mache-Chindul and Cotacachi-Cayapas. In response to a series of incongruities observed between the NGO’s assumptions and realities on the ground, this dissertation employs a matrix ecology approach and challenges deeply-entrenched notions in traditional conservation by attempting to devise more effective strategies for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development that include local populations in design and implementation. It does so through the use of two case studies, Río Muchacho and Fundación Golondrinas, which are representative of a widespread emergence of local, small-scale conservation/rural development/ecotourism projects in the landscape matrix in the Ecuadorian Chocó (and rural Ecuador in general). A detailed qualitative assessment of these projects, their relationship with members of surrounding communities and their different approaches to achieving their stated conservation and development goals is complemented by remote sensing analysis of land cover changes over the last 12 years in these study sites. Based on the aforementioned qualitative and quantitative analyses undertaken in this dissertation, a few major factors are analyzed in terms of their potential for success: ecotourism, social capital in the form of local organizations with effective networks linking to outside markets, and the formulation of any program within an appropriate local spatial context. Applications of these findings are subsequently considered in wider-ranging strategies for the development of an ecological corridor between Mache-Chindul and Cotacachi-Cayapas.

 

Ecological Benefits

Clewell, A., Aronson, J. and Winterhalder, K., 2004. The SER international primer on ecological restoration.

“Ecological restoration is an intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability. Frequently, the ecosystem that requires restoration has been degraded, damaged, transformed or entirely destroy ed as the direct or indirect result of human activities. In some cases, these impacts to ecosystems have been caused or aggravated by natural agencies such as wildfire, floods, storms, or volcanic eruption, to the point at which the ecosystem cannot recover its predisturbance state or its historic developmental trajectory.”

Two Books by Thomas Lovejoy:

Lovejoy, T.E. and R.O. Bierregaard. 1990. Central Amazonian forests and the minimum critical size of ecosystems project. In Four neotropical rainforests, ed. A.H. Gentry, 60-71. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Lovejoy, T.E. and L. Hannah (eds). 2019. Biodiversity and Climate Change Transforming the Biosphere. New Haven:Yale University Press. 416pp.

 

Understanding Design Parameters in Sizing and Distance between “Islands” to be Effective

MacArthur, Robert H.; Edward O. Wilson The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. pp. 203 pp. ISBN 978-0-691-08836-5. (1967).

Abstract: Biogeography was stuck in a “natural history phase” dominated by the collection of data, the young Princeton biologists Robert H. MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson argued in 1967. In this book, the authors developed a general theory to explain the facts of island biogeography. The theory builds on the first principles of population ecology and genetics to explain how distance and area combine to regulate the balance between immigration and extinction in island populations. The authors then test the theory against data. The Theory of Island Biogeography was never intended as the last word on the subject. Instead, MacArthur and Wilson sought to stimulate new forms of theoretical and empirical studies, which will lead in turn to a stronger general theory. Even a third of a century since its publication, the book continues to serve that purpose well. From popular books like David Quammen’s Song of the Dodo to arguments in the professional literature, The Theory of Island Biogeography remains at the center of discussions about the geographic distribution of species. In a new preface, Edward O. Wilson reviews the origins and consequences of this classic book.

Biodiversity Hotspots

Conservation International 2014. Hotspots. Targeted investment in nature’s most important places. Retrieved 1 September, 2018, from  https://www.conservation.org/How/Pages/Hotspots.aspx

“There are places on Earth that are both biologically rich — and deeply threatened. For our own sake, we must work to protect them.”

Biodiversity and Functions in Forest and Grassland Ecosystems

Relationship of biodiversity – ecosystem functioning in forest and grassland ecosystems.

Diversity-dependent temporal divergence of ecosystem functioning in experimental ecosystems. / Guerrero-Ramirez, N. R. et. al, Nature Ecology & Evolution (2017)

Abstract: The effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning generally increase over time, but the underlying processes remain unclear. Using 26 long-term grassland and forest experimental ecosystems, we demonstrate that biodiversity–ecosystem functioning relationships strengthen mainly by greater increases in functioning in high-diversity communities in grasslands and forests. In grasslands, biodiversity effects also strengthen due to decreases in functioning in low-diversity communities. Contrasting trends across grasslands are associated with differences in soil characteristics

 

Biodiversity in Sustainable Forest Management

A methodological study to determine maximum diversity in selective cutting determines forests cut by uniform spacing can be ecologically sound in Guarani Reserve, Misiones, Argentina.

Restoring Biodiversity of Degraded Landscapes

Understanding seed rain and seed dispersal agents in various plantation types and landscapes among various plant species.

Abstract: Lack of seed dispersal can be an important obstacle to natural regeneration (NR) of degraded pastures in the humid tropics. Tree plantations can facilitate secondary forest succession by attracting seed dispersal agents from nearby forests. We studied seed rain and seed dispersal agents in 12–13 years old pure and mixed native tree plantations at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica from July to December 2004. Plantations of Balizia elegans (5,522), Dipteryx panamensis (2,263), and Jacaranda copaia (2,091) had the greatest total seed abundance; treatments with the least total seed abundance were Calophyllum brasiliense (56), nonplanted abandoned pasture control 2 (353), Mixed Species 2 (389), and control 1 (836). Plantations of J. copaia and Hyeronima alchorneoides had the greatest seed species richness density, whereas the lowest seed species richness was found in the control treatments. The NR plots had more seeds dispersed by wind, whereas in the plantations, the most important dispersal agents were birds and mammals. The most abundant seeds were those of Miconia spp. (14,492),Psychotria bracheata (2,252), and the Poaceae family (1,346), all species from early successional stages. Plantations of native species are effective in attracting seed dispersal agents and thus facilitating regeneration of degraded pasturelands in the region.

 

Agroforestry & Agricultural

Traditional agriculture in Mesoamerican Homegardens and the contribution to biodiversity in addition to carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, and other co-benefits.

Homegardens of Mesoamerica: Biodiversity, Food Security, and Nutrient Management / F. Montagnini

Abstract. The region of Mesoamerica is densely populated and it suffers from poverty and malnutrition both in urban and rural areas. It is home to the Mayan civilization that practiced sustainable agricultural systems, involving many native crops and soil conservation strategies, for centuries. The homegardens, which provide the household with a basic food source as well as high value products to generate cash income are important in Mesoamerica, and are often used as tools in development projects that promote food security, especially in the poorest areas of Mesoamerica. The Mesoamerican homegardens are quite diverse in vertical and horizontal structure and species composition. Both exotic and native plants are used, with emphasis on fruit trees. Domestic animals, especially chickens and pigs, add protein to a diet that is generally protein-deficient. Many indigenous communities (descendants of the ancient
Maya) still manage these homegardens using techniques that include residue management and ash deposition, thus enhancing nutrient recycling and conservation. Carbon sequestration may be important due to the efficient capture of solar radiation in the multi-layered homegardens, although its global or regional importance is minimal due to the relatively small area under the homegarden system. Management strategies that promote nutrient recycling and maintain high species diversity should be encouraged to ensure sustainability of homegardens in the region.

Integration of agriculture and biodiversity conservation-

Harvey, C.A., O. Komar, R. Chazdon, B.G. Ferguson, B. Finegan, D.M. Griffith, M. Martínez‐Ramos, H. Morales, R. Nigh, L. Soto‐Pinto, M. Van Breugel, and M. Wishnie. 2008. Integrating agricultural landscapes with biodiversity conservation in the Mesoamerican hotspot. Conservation Biology 22(1): 8-15.

Intro Paragraph: The major challenge in tropical land management is to meet the ever‐growing demand for agricultural products while conserving biodiversity, providing critical ecosystem services, and maintaining rural livelihoods. This challenge is particularly acute in the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, a region of high conservation value for both wild and domesticated species that is undergoing rapid human population growth, ecological degradation, and loss of traditional farming systems (Myers et al. 2000; Harvey et al. 2005a). Approximately 80% of the region’s vegetation has been converted to agriculture, threatening biodiversity. More than 300 of the region’s endemic species of flora and fauna are threatened, including at least 107 that are critically endangered (CI 2007). With continuing habitat loss (deforestation is 1.2%/year in Central America and Mexico combined; FAO 2005) and fragmentation of remaining forests, pressure on the region’s biodiversity will intensify.

 

Agroforestry as an important harbor of biodiversity conservation in human dominated landscapes.

Bhagwat, S.A., Willis, K.J., Birks, H.J.B. and Whittaker, R.J., 2008. Agroforestry: a refuge for tropical biodiversity?. Trends in ecology & evolution, 23(5), pp.261-267.

Abstract: As rates of deforestation continue to rise in many parts of the tropics, the international conservation community is faced with the challenge of finding approaches which can reduce deforestation and provide rural livelihoods in addition to conserving biodiversity. Much of modern-day conservation is motivated by a desire to conserve ‘pristine nature’ in protected areas, while there is growing recognition of the long-term human involvement in forest dynamics and of the importance of conservation outside protected areas. Agroforestry – intentional management of shade trees with agricultural crops – has the potential for providing habitats outside formally protected land, connecting nature reserves and alleviating resource-use pressure on conservation areas. Here we examine the role of agroforestry systems in maintaining species diversity and conclude that these systems can play an important role in biodiversity conservation in human-dominated landscapes.

The utility of  habitat patches as a harbor for biodiversity. In this study, of particular interest is habitat patches and species diversity in cork oak agroforestry systems.

Rosalino, L.M., do Rosario, J. and Santos-Reis, M., 2009. The role of habitat patches on mammalian diversity in cork oak agroforestry systems. Acta Oecologica, 35(4), pp.507-512.

Land Sharing vs Land Sparing…

Phalan, B., M. Onial, A. Balmford, and R.E. Green, 2011. Reconciling food production and biodiversity conservation: land sharing and land sparing compared. Science 333(6047): 1289-1291

Abstract: The question of how to meet rising food demand at the least cost to biodiversity requires the evaluation of two contrasting alternatives: land sharing, which integrates both objectives on the same land; and land sparing, in which high-yield farming is combined with protecting natural habitats from conversion to agriculture. To test these alternatives, we compared crop yields and densities of bird and tree species across gradients of agricultural intensity in southwest Ghana and northern India. More species were negatively affected by agriculture than benefited from it, particularly among species with small global ranges. For both taxa in both countries, land sparing is a more promising strategy for minimizing negative impacts of food production, at both current and anticipated future levels of production.

Biodiversity in Biological Corridors Through Human Modified Landscapes

Homegardens as a positive contribution to species biodiversity.

Redondo Brenes and Montagnini 2010 – Contribution of Homegardens Agrosilvopaturals Systems, and Other Human Dominated Land Use Types to the Avian Diversity of a Biological Corridor in Costa Rica.

Abstract: As a result of the limitations of protected areas in providing habitat for many wildlife species, in the last two decades efforts have shifted to studying wildlife conservation in human-dominated landscapes. The present study was carried out in the Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor, Costa Rica. The corridor, an 82,00 ha area of fragmented forests, encompasses 55 rural communities with more than 10,000 people. Deforestation and development are the main threats to biodiversity in the region. The main objective of this study was to estimate the contribution of ten habitat types: forested areas (wildlife refuges and biological reserves), agroforestry systems (home gardens and agrosilvopastoral systems), and other human-dominated land uses on the conservation of bird species in the corridor. Bird data was obtained using point counts along a whole year. Each habitat type had a total of 20 sampling points (200 points total), and each sampling point was listed three times during the summer and three times during the winter seasons. The bird species were categorized by habitat preference, habitat and feeding guilds, and endangered status. We identified a total of 21,015 bird individuals that corresponded to 293 species. Forest fallows (155 species), forest edges (154), home gardens (148), and agrosilvopastoral systems (143) were the land uses with the most species. On the other hand villages (104 species), oil palm plantations (107), residential tourism projects (111), and tree plantations (115) had the lowest bird species richness values. Biological reserves (124 species) and wildlife refuges (121) had intermediate species richness values. But, they both provided habitat to 68 forest dependent species that were not found in any other habitat type, and to 19 species (70%) of the species of conservation concern, thus they are a priority habitat for conservation in the region. It is also relevant to highlight the importance of home gardens and agrosilvopastoral systems as habitat for 70% of the avian diversity of the region, including the endangered Scarlet Macaw (are Macao). Biodiversity conservation should always include primary and old-secondary forests (e.g., those forests located in wildlife refuges, biological reserves, or isolated forest fragments) as these are the most important habitat type for wildlife at the landscape level. However, the results of this research also show that the matrix, especially agroforestry systems and tree plantations, are important to ensure wildlife conservation in the biological corridor in the resort and long term.

 

The role and value of remnant forests through agro-ecosystems and human dominated landscapes as a harbor for biodiversity.

Anand, M.O., Krishnaswamy, J., Kumar, A. and Bali, A., 2010. Sustaining biodiversity conservation in human-modified landscapes in the Western Ghats: remnant forests matter. Biological Conservation, 143(10), pp.2363-2374.

Abstract: Human-modified tropical landscapes under semi-natural or agro-ecosystems often harbor biodiversity of significant conservation value. In the Western Ghats of India, these ecosystems also provide connectivity between protected areas and other remnant forests. We investigated the conservation value of these landscapes and agro-ecosystems using results from 35 studies covering 14 taxonomic groups. Large, conspicuous taxonomic groups and tree-covered land-use types have received much focus in this area of research in the Western Ghats. We computed a response ratio defined as the log ratio of species richness in human land use to species richness in forest control site from 17 studies. In a meta-analysis, we investigated variation of this ratio across studies with respect to three variables: taxonomic group, the land-use type sampled and the extent of forest cover within the study landscape. Higher forest cover within the landscape emerged as a major positive influence on biodiversity in human-modified landscapes for vertebrates and vegetation while no patterns emerged for invertebrates. Our results suggest that loss of remnant forest patches from these landscapes is likely to reduce biodiversity within agro-ecosystems and exacerbate overall biodiversity loss across the Western Ghats. Conservation of these remnant forest patches through protection and restoration of habitat and connectivity to larger forest patches needs to be prioritized. In the densely populated Western Ghats, this can only be achieved by building partnerships with local land owners and stakeholders through innovative land-use policy and incentive schemes for conservation.

Home Gardens as harbors of biodiversity-

Galluzzi, G., P. Eyzaguirre, and V. Negri. 2010. Home gardens: neglected hotspots of agro-biodiversity and cultural diversity. Biodiversity and Conservation 19(13): 3635-3654.

Abstract: Over the last two decades, the importance of conserving genetic resources has received increasing attention. In this context the role of home gardens as repositories of biological diversity has been acknowledged but still a comprehensive, interdisciplinary investigation of their agro-biodiversity is lacking. Home gardens, whether found in rural or urban areas, are characterized by a structural complexity and multifunctionality which enables the provision of different benefits to ecosystems and people. Studies carried out in various countries demonstrate that high levels of inter- and intra-specific plant genetic diversity, especially in terms of traditional crop varieties and landraces, are preserved in home gardens. Families engage in food production for subsistence or small-scale marketing and the variety of crops and wild plants provides nutritional benefits. At the same time, home gardens are important social and cultural spaces where knowledge related to agricultural practices is transmitted and through which households may improve their income and livelihoods. The present article summarizes available literature on the biological and cultural significance of agro-biodiversity in home gardens. It discusses future constraints and opportunities in home garden research, in the prospect of defining and promoting their role in conservation of agricultural biodiversity and cultural heritage. KeywordsHome gardens-Agro-ecosystems-In situ conservation-Agro-biodiversity-Landraces

Agricultural landscapes management and design for biodiversity, in particular coffee agro-ecosystems.

Landis, D.A., 2017. Designing agricultural landscapes for biodiversity-based ecosystem services. Basic and Applied Ecology, 18, pp.1-12.

Design Strategies

The role of Human Modified Landscapes in Biodiversity Conservation- How to understand and frame disturbances and land use interactions with tropical biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Melo, F.P., Arroyo-Rodríguez, V., Fahrig, L., Martínez-Ramos, M. and Tabarelli, M., 2013. On the hope for biodiversity-friendly tropical landscapes. Trends in ecology & evolution, 28(8), pp.462-468.

With the decreasing affordability of protecting large blocks of pristine tropical forests, ecologists have staked their hopes on the management of human-modified landscapes (HMLs) to conserve tropical biodiversity. Here, we examine key forces affecting the dynamics of HMLs, and propose a framework connecting human disturbances, land use, and prospects for both tropical biodiversity and ecosystem services. We question the forest transition as a worldwide source of new secondary forest; the role played by regenerating (secondary) forest for biodiversity conservation, and the resilience of HMLs. We then offer a conceptual model describing potential successional trajectories among four major landscape types (natural, conservation, functional, and degraded) and highlight the potential implications of our model in terms of research agendas and conservation planning.

Correlations between reserve size and biodiversity-

Diamond, J.M., 1975. The island dilemma: lessons of modern biogeographic studies for the design of natural reserves. Biological conservation, 7(2), pp.129-146.

Bengtsson, J., Angelstam, P., Elmqvist, T., Emanuelsson, U., Folke, C., Ihse, M., Moberg, F. and Nyström, M., 2003. Reserves, resilience and dynamic landscapes. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 32(6), pp.389-396.

Laurance, W.F., 2008. Theory meets reality: how habitat fragmentation research has transcended island biogeographic theory. Biological conservation, 141(7), pp.1731-1744.

The longest running study of habitat fragmentation in the Amazon forest–

Laurance, W.F., J.L. Camargo, P.M. Fearnside, T.E. Lovejoy, G.B. Williamson, R.C. Mesquita, C.F. Meyer, P.E. Bobrowiec, and S.G. Laurance. 2018. An Amazonian rainforest and its fragments as a laboratory of global change. Biological Reviews 93(1): 223-247.

We synthesize findings from the world’s largest and longest-running experimental study of habitat fragmentation, in central Amazonia. Over the past 36 years, 11 forest fragments ranging from 1 ha to 100 ha in size have experienced a wide array of ecological changes. Edge effects have been a dominant driver of fragment dynamics, strongly affecting forest microclimate, tree mortality, carbon storage and fauna. The matrix of vegetation surrounding fragments has changed markedly over time (evolving from large cattle pastures to mosaics of abandoned pasture and secondary regrowth forest), and this, in turn, has strongly influenced the dynamics of fragments and faunal communities. Both rare weather events and apparent global-change drivers have significantly influenced forest structure and dynamics across the entire study area, both in forest fragments and in nearby intact forest. Such large-scale drivers are likely to interact synergistically with habitat fragmentation.

Patch Dynamics and Reserve Design.

Pickett, S.T. and J.N. Thompson. 1978. Patch dynamics and the design of nature reserves. Biological Conservation 13(1): 27-37.

Abstract: Island biogeographic theory has been applied to the design of nature reserves. However, immigration, which is important in maintaining species equilibrium on true islands, will not contribute significantly to the maintenance of equilibrium on reserves in the future because of the disappearance of recolonisation sources. Consequently, extinction becomes the dominant population process, and the internal disturbance dynamics become the critical design feature of reserves. The design of reserves should be based on ‘minimum dynamic area’, the smallest area with a natural disturbance regime which maintains internal recolonisation sources and hence minimises extinctions. Determination of minimum dynamic area must be based on knowledge of disturbance-generated patch size, frequency, and longevity, and the mobilities of the preserved species. These features have not all been explicitly considered in the previous island biogeographic design recommendations.

Refuge design and Island Biogeography.

Simberloff, D. and L.G. Abele. 1982. Refuge design and island biogeographic theory: effects of fragmentation. The American Naturalist 120(1): 41-50.

Abstract: Cole’s theoretical conclusion that one large site generally contains more species than several small ones of equal total area is falsified by data in the literature, as is his contention that exceptions will only occur when the species in the sites are but a small fraction of those in the species pool. For a variety of taxa, for a number of different habitat types, and for a wide range of sizes of the biota as a fraction of the pool, either there is no clear best strategy, or several small sites are better than one large site. Since there are numerous idiosyncratic biological considerations, plus a number of nonbiological ones that bear heavily on refuge design, it is unlikely that a general reductionist model can generate useful predictions or advice on this matter.